Thomas Jefferson University CH41 COOP & Emergency Operations Plan Paper Enter your Implications and Reflections on the readings for the week and make sure

Thomas Jefferson University CH41 COOP & Emergency Operations Plan Paper Enter your Implications and Reflections on the readings for the week and make sure you briefly describe how the field of “logistics” fits into your COOP and an Emergency Operations Plan. CHAPTER
41
Operations and Logistics
James J. Rifino
Disaster management is most effective when responding agencies are
well trained, well practiced, and familiar with the hierarchy needed
for disaster response. Before a major incident, responding organizations and personnel must be organized under a defined leadership
structure to effectively coordinate and carry out the tasks needed to
properly mitigate the event. One of the hallmarks of a developed country from the emergency response perspective is its ability to effectively
respond to and manage a complex disaster event in an organized
fashion.1,2
By definition, the Incident Command System (ICS) is a management
system designed to enable effective and efficient domestic incident management by integrating a combination of facilities, equipment, personnel,
procedures, and communications operating within a common organizational structure. ICS is normally structured to facilitate activities in five
major functional areas: Command (directed by the Incident Commander
[IC]), Planning (collects and disseminates information about the incident and advises about resources), Finance and Administrative (critical
for tracking incident costs and reimbursement accounting), Operations,
and Logistics. These functions task individuals with different responsibilities crucial for disaster response and recovery. They can also be applied
routinely for local and regional incidents, not just disasters.
The Operations section is responsible for carrying out the response
activities described in the Incident Action Plan (IAP). This includes
directing and coordinating all operations, assisting in the development
of response goals and objectives, requesting and releasing resources,
and providing situation and resource status updates. The Logistics section is responsible for services and support necessary to sustain the tactical objectives of the Operations section. This includes facilities,
services, materials, and personnel to operate the requested equipment
for the incident. This function is most significant with respect to longterm or extended operations when more resources are required.
Operations and Logistics are two completely separate functions and
functional entities, but an efficient and effective Operations section
at a major incident is partly dependent on a well-organized and properly functioning Logistics section.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
History has documented disasters on many levels all around the world.
Some of the larger disasters were the result of infection (North
American Smallpox Epidemic of 1775, Black Death of 1348 to 1351,
Spanish Influenza in 1918) as well as natural disasters (Great Earthquake of 1202, Aleppo Earthquake of 1138, volcanic eruptions in
Greece and the Pacific). These horrific events killed millions around
the world. Documentation of “disaster preparation” and “disaster
response” internationally was very poor, essentially nonexistent. In
the United States, we have documentation of a series of fires in the city
of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1803. After the devastating fires
demolished the area and injured many, the Seventh U.S. Congress
passed the Congressional Act of 1803, which provided relief for Portsmouth merchants by extending the time they had for remitting tariffs
on imported goods. This is widely considered the first piece of legislation passed by the federal government that provided relief after a disaster.3,4 In 1900 Congress granted a charter to the American Red Cross,
which had provided disaster relief following the Johnstown Flood in
Pennsylvania in 1889. The charter included the mandate to “carry
on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and
to apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities.” This was the socalled American Amendment calling for peacetime disaster relief.5 For
the next several decades, disaster relief was expected to be delivered by
charitable organizations. Military assistance, however, was provided
following the San Francisco Earthquake in 1908.
The next documented federal action came in 1932, when President
Herbert Hoover commissioned the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). This federal assistance lent money to banks and institutions, with the goal of stimulating the economy and is considered
the first organized federal disaster response agency.6 Over the last half
of the twentieth century, the U.S. federal government continued to
grow, while disastrous events stimulated the growth of the idea of
“disaster response” and “disaster preparedness” largely as a result of
the effects of war, hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires. It is important
to state that, like most laws in the United States, provisions for disaster
response have been more reactive rather than proactive.
Disaster response in the United States is largely legislated at the federal level, but it is also legislated at the state and local levels. Local
resources and personnel are ultimately responsible for coordinating
and deploying resources needed after an incident. All disasters are
“local,” and most jurisdictions across the United States authorize and
recognize the Fire Chief (or designee) as the IC of any incident involving imminent danger to life or property. The exception to this is any
situation that is more of a law enforcement issue (e.g., sniper, hostage
situation). It is the IC who has overall authority for any disaster operation, unless he transfers command to another individual.
The IC must assess every situation and determine the scope of
resources needed. If local resources are insufficient to manage the incident, additional manpower and equipment and supplies are typically
requested from neighboring communities (a concept known as “mutual
aid”). This may or may not be based on a formal agreement between
individual agencies and/or political jurisdictions. For any major incident, local resources need to rely on each other as national resources
typically take a few days to organize and deploy. In more progressive
fire-rescue systems, mutual aid resources are dispatched according to
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270
SECTION IV Event-Response Topics
a predefined algorithm or plan, and this concept is known as “automatic aid.” The difference is that “mutual aid” is requested once the
scene is assessed and it is determined that there is a lack of resources.
“Automatic aid” is requested by the service upon dispatch to a situation
that is recognized immediately as requiring additional assistance not
available at the time of the call (e.g., calling for a ladder truck from a
neighboring town for a fire in a tall building).
If regional resources do not satisfy the needs of a disaster response,
the traditional next step has been to request aid from the state emergency management agency. Governors can declare a state of emergency, thereby allowing for access to necessary materials, equipment,
and financial resources. The state governor may also activate the
National Guard. In the last 10 to 15 years, many states have developed
specialty response teams capable of mobilizing in response to a disaster.
These include urban search and rescue (US&R) teams, hazardous materials (HazMat) teams, weapons of mass destruction (WMD) task forces,
emergency medical service(s) (EMS) and ambulance strike teams, and
similar entities. In 1996, Congress enacted the Emergency Management
Assistance Compact, a mutual aid agreement that allows human and
material resources to cross state lines and operate in a declared disaster
situation in a “state-to-state” assistance operation when requested
through the proper channels and approved by the governor of the
affected state. Because disaster preparedness and response evolved
out of the military in the United States, many of the Logistics and Operations processes today have roots in military practice.
Throughout Europe, the European Commission coordinates emergency relief and assistance in the wake of all disasters. Floods and fires
are quite common in the summer months, although all disasters are
monitored for and an appropriate response is expected. The Monitoring and Information Centre (MIC) within the European Commission is
a centrally based center in Brussels that monitors emergencies worldwide and coordinates European resources for relief operations. The
MIC acts as a communication hub between countries after a disaster
occurs, whether natural or human-made. Upon receiving a request
for help, duty officers alert potential donor nations and match offers
of aid to the needs on the ground. In addition to rounding up equipment and supplies, the MIC dispatches field experts to disaster sites.7
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) is an organization that
helps to reduce the impact of disasters on communities and countries in
Asia and the Pacific, the most hazard-prone region in the world. Established in 1986, ADPC is an independent nongovernmental organization (NGO) that promotes disaster awareness and the development
of mitigation and management policies in advance of a disaster. With
headquarters located in Bangkok, ADPC also has country offices in
Bangladesh, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), and
Myanmar. ADPC raises awareness, helps establish and strengthen sustainable institutional mechanisms, enhances knowledge and skills, and
facilitates the exchange of information, experience, and expertise. The
organization also deploys disaster risk management (DRM) information and systems to reduce local, national, and regional risk across this
large region.8
Australia has a system very similar to the United States. The states
and territories have primary responsibility for life and property within
their borders, and they must rely on their own plans and arrangements
to respond to natural or human-made emergencies that threaten life or
property. When a jurisdiction deems that their resources will not be
able to effectively manage an incident it can ask for help from the
Australian Government. This request is delivered through the Australian
Government Disaster Response Plan (COMDISPLAN). Emergency
Management Australia (EMA) receives the request for assistance and
responds through the Australian Government Crisis Coordination
Centre (CCC).
CURRENT PRACTICE
Operations
Most disaster response begins with an immediate response from
bystanders on the scene. Some will immediately act, and others will
run. Most people, if able, call for help (911, 112, 118, 119, 999, etc.).
Police, fire, and EMS personnel are usually the first responders to
the incident or disaster. Those first on-scene will undoubtedly be overwhelmed, but these important rescuers need to sweep the scene for
safety, assess the scope or extent of the situation, identify the number
of victims, determine and summon additional resources needed, and
then assess for the need for immediate lifesaving techniques. Disaster
mitigation very often starts with the very first arriving group to the incident. Triage priorities change during any mass casualty incident (MCI),
and personnel must be well versed and well trained with the concepts of
disaster management and triage of multiple casualties. An initial command area, known as the emergency operations center (EOC), will need
to be designated and set up in an appropriate area, followed by an
assessment of short- and long-term additional resources needed from
local, state, and federal partners. This will simultaneously include organizing an ICS.
Disaster operations vary in size and complexity depending on the
nature and duration of the event, as well as resources needed to stabilize
the incident. The operations section is responsible for managing all
operations directed toward reducing the immediate hazard at the incident site, save lives and property, establish situation control, and restore
the area to normal conditions (Figure 41-1). This section establishes a
methodical strategy and the actions needed to accomplish the goals and
objectives set by Command (IC, Safety Officer, Public Information
Officer, Senior Liaison, and Senior Advisors) to achieve response objectives. Common tactical resources required at a disaster incident include
fire suppression, public health, public works, technical rescue, hazardous materials containment, and EMS. The incident itself will define the
type and quantity of resources needed to attain the objectives set by
command personnel. A hurricane, tropical storm, tornado, or earthquake may often require a national response and will have specific concerns and issues, but an act of war or terrorism will require other
additional resources to be deployed.
The ICS is the national standard for providing guidance and organization with respect to the assets needed to respond to an incident and
the process of the response through all stages of the event, no matter the
size or complexity. The ICS introduces a number of concepts, including
“Span of Control” and “Unified Command” (all discussed elsewhere in
this book). It is a flexible management structure, allowing for expansion
and contraction of all sectors based on the dynamics of the incident. In
Operations
section
Branch(es)
Divisions/
groups
Resources
FIG 41-1 Operations Functions.
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CHAPTER 41 Operations and Logistics
late 2004, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) released the
National Incident Management System (NIMS) as a template to complement the ICS. NIMS is an essential foundation of the National Preparedness System (NPS). Per the Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA), NIMS is a “systematic, proactive approach to guide
departments and agencies at all levels of government, nongovernmental
organizations, and the private sector to work together seamlessly and
manage incidents involving all threats and hazards—regardless of
cause, size, location, or complexity.”9 It provides a common approach
for managing all incidents consistently while allowing for flexibility. It
is strongly encouraged and recommended that all agencies practice the
basics on a daily basis with small incidents, so that a response to a larger
incident is more seamless and practiced when it occurs.
The Operations Section Chief is the individual designated by the IC
to manage and command the Operations section. He is ultimately
responsible for developing and implementing strategies and tactics to
meet the incident objectives set by the IC and the IAP. This plan details
the objectives of the mission and how they will be met. An IAP should
be written for every operational period during the disaster. Tactical
decision making (i.e., how, when, and where to deploy certain resources
to mitigate a disaster) is also the responsibility of the Operations
Section Chief. The ability to make these decisions in a competent fashion, however, is predicated on a continual flow of information both
from the field and from the command sector. If an incident spans more
than one operational period (usually one work cycle), the operations
chief may assign a deputy to work the opposite shift to ensure adequate
time for nourishment and rest. An Operations Section Chief should be
designated for each operational period.
There are several goals that the Operations Chief must accomplish
during the initial stages of the response to a disaster. In addition to
managing all incident tactical activities and implementing an IAP,
the Operations Chief must decide how much to expand his or her organizational structure to match the size and scope of the incident, and the
numbers of personnel needed for assigned operations (span of control).
Supervisory personnel should be titled and placed in charge of subsidiaries within the operations section by who is most qualified to perform
the task rather than on a person’s rank or predisaster title. Span of control within the Operations Section is recommended to be 1:5, but may
be as high as 1:10 in larger scale incidents. If this is exceeded, branches
need to be established with the same concept. The Operations Chief
must decide, in conjunction with the IC and Safety Officer, what degree
of risk he or she is willing to assume when sending emergency
responders into an unstable environment to perform search, rescue,
evacuation, medical care, and mitigation activities related to the disaster event. The Operations Chief must maintain an effective line of communication with the various components within the section as well as
with the other ICS sections and the IC. Finally, the Operations Chief
must understand the concept of flexibility when making decisions.
Disaster events may appear static to the civilian population, but emergency responders understand that these events are dynamic in nature.
Changing environmental conditions, secondary hazards, fatigue,
resource availability, psychological stressors, and many other factors
contribute to ever-changing disaster conditions, and these conditions
require adaptability and flexibility in decision-making.
Thankfully, there is usually no reason to expand the operations section of the ICS for the great majority of local incidents. An event that
the DHS labels an “incident of national significance,” however, may
necessitate creation of divisions, groups, branches, task forces, and
strike teams. These entities represent functional and geographic separation of duties. A good example of this was demonstrated after the 9/11
disaster. The fire department of the City of New York (FDNY) retained
command and control of the entire incident and eventually developed a
271
“unified command structure” according to principles of the ICS. The
terrorist attack claimed many lives and resulted in a disaster site that
spanned 16 acres. This required a large-scale expansion of the Operations section. Divisions were created according to street names that
bordered the scene. Groups included functional components such as
technical rescue, fire suppression, and EMS. Branches of each group
were composed of personnel attached to a specific type of resource,
such as the US&R branch. Within the US&R were individual US&R
task forces. EMS strike teams from FDNY and surrounding mutual
aid organizations were deployed in support of US&R task forces and
other specialized resources. Health and medical resources to support
rescue and recovery workers on site were provided by the National
Disaster Medical System (NDMS) under FEMA’s Emergency Support
Function (ESF) #8, using disaster medical assistance teams (DMATs).
A variety of federal resources are available to assist local ICs in
planning for and handling large-scale disasters and their aftermath.
Recognizing that government resources cannot meet the needs of those
affected by catastrophic events, the National Response Framework
(NRF) was developed to prepare communities. Updated in 2013, it provides context for how the entire community works together as well as
the response efforts related to other parts of national preparedness. The
NRF uses the comprehensive framework of NIMS and provides mechanisms for expedited and proactive federal support. It is a more operational incident management and resource allocation plan. The NRF
aligns federal coordination structures, capabilities, and resources into
a unified, all-discipline and all-hazards approach to domestic incident
management. The priorities of the NRF include saving lives and protecting the heal…
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