Bowie State University Care Plan Development What resources, needs and limitations should the nurse assess to develop a care plan for a recently discharged

Bowie State University Care Plan Development What resources, needs and limitations should the nurse assess to develop a care plan for a recently discharged 82 y/o chronically ill man who is returning to a single-room occupancy hotel in an inner city location? Support your response with at least 2 scholarly, research journal article.textbookAndrews, M. & Boyle, J. (2016). Transcultural concepts in nursing care (7th ed.). Wolters
Kluwer: Philadelphia. ISBN 978-1-4511-9397-8 Sarah Grison • Todd Heatherton • Michael Gazzaniga
Psychology in
Your Life
SECOND EDITION
Chapter 4
Development Across the Life Span
© 2016 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
4.1 How Do We Develop
in the Womb?
• Developmental psychology
– The scientific study of how humans change
over the life span, from conception until death
– Developmental changes can be grouped into
three domains
1. Physical
2. Socio-emotional
3. Cognitive
2
Prenatal Development Includes
Three Phases of Physical Growth
• Germinal period
– The period in prenatal development from conception
to 2 weeks after fertilization of the egg, when the
zygote divides rapidly and implants in the uterine wall
• Embryonic period
– The period in prenatal development from 2 to 8 weeks
after conception, when the brain, spine, major organs,
and bodily structures begin to form in the embryo
3
Prenatal Development Includes
Three Phases of Physical Growth (1)
• Fetal period
– The period in prenatal development from 8
weeks after conception until birth, when the
brain continues developing, bodily structures
are refined, and the fetus grows in length and
weight and accumulates fat in preparation for
birth
4
Prenatal Development Includes
Three Phases of Physical Growth (2)
5
Prenatal Development Includes
Three Phases of Physical Growth (3)
6
Substances Affect Prenatal
Development in All Three Domains (4)
• Teratogens
– Environmental substances that can harm
prenatal development
• From the Greek tera, which means “monster”
7
Substances Affect Prenatal
Development in All Three Domains (5)
• Drugs and alcohol
– The use of recreational drugs—such as
opiates, cocaine, or marijuana—during
pregnancy can affect the mother and the
developing human
– Women who drink alcohol when pregnant are
gambling with their baby’s development;
alcohol can cause a variety of defects
• The most severe disorder is fetal alcohol syndrome
(FAS)
8
Substances Affect Prenatal
Development in All Three Domains (6)
9
Substances Affect Prenatal
Development in All Three Domains (7)
10
4.2 How Do Infants and Children
Develop Over Time?
• Both infancy and childhood are times of
great change across all three
developmental domains
11
Infants and Children Change
Physically (1)
• As infants and children develop, the brain
changes in two critical ways
– First, myelinated axons form synapses with
other neurons
– Second, over time and with experience, the
synaptic connections are refined to preserve
the most important and helpful connections
• Unfortunately, sometimes infants and young
children are raised in environments that do not
stimulate their brains
12
Infants and Children Change
Physically (2)
13
Infants and Children Change
Physically (3)
• Inborn reflexes
– Babies come into the world hardwired with
basic motor reflexes that aid survival
• Rooting reflex
• Sucking reflex
• Grasping reflex
14
Infants and Children Change
Physically (4)
15
Infants and Children Change
Physically (5)
• Motor skills
– Maturation: Physical development of the
brain and body that prepares an infant for
voluntary movement, such as rolling over,
sitting, and walking
16
Infants and Children Change
Physically (6)
17
Infants and Children Change
Physically (7)
• Dynamic systems perspective
– Change in any domain (physical, socio-emotional, or
cognitive) takes place through complex interactions
between the person’s biology, the person’s active
exploration of an environment, and the constant
feedback provided within the person’s cultural context
• The dynamic systems theory of development can be seen in
the way that children often achieve developmental
milestones at different paces, depending on the culture in
which they are raised
18
Infants and Children Change
Physically (8)
• Sensory development
– An infant obtains information from the world
by hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and
perceiving touch. Some of these sensory
abilities are more fully developed at birth than
others
• Infants who are 2 hours old prefer sweet tastes to
all other tastes
• When infants are born, they can also hear well
• Newborns have poor vision
19
Infants and Children Change
Physically (9)
20
Infants and Children Change
Physically (10)
21
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (1)
• Early attachment
– All have a fundamental need to form strong
connections with caretakers
• During the late 1950s, psychologists generally
believed that the care an infant needed was based
primarily on getting food from the mother
– Harlow monkey attachment experiment
22
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (2)
23
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (3)
• Variations in attachment
– Separation anxiety
• Occurs in all human cultures
– Ainsworth created the strange-situation test
• The strange-situation test has revealed three
attachment styles of children
– Secure attachment
– Avoidant attachment
– Ambivalent attachment
24
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (4)
25
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (5)
26
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (6)
• Variations in attachment
– Secure attachment: The attachment style for
most infants, who are confident enough to
play in an unfamiliar environment as long as
the caregiver is present and are readily
comforted by the caregiver during times of
distress
27
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (7)
• Insecure attachment
– Avoidant attachment: The attachment style
for infants who are somewhat willing to
explore an unfamiliar environment, but seem
to have little interest in the caregiver—they do
not look at the caregiver when the caregiver
leaves or returns
28
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (8)
– Ambivalent attachment: The attachment
style for infants who are unwilling to explore
an unfamiliar environment but seem to have
mixed feelings about the caregiver—they cry
when the caregiver leaves the room, but they
cannot be consoled by the caregiver upon his
or her return
29
Infants and Children Change
Socially and Emotionally (9)
30
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (1)
• Developing theory of mind
– Theory of mind: The capacity to understand
that other people have minds and intentions
• As infants and children acquire theory of mind,
they develop the ability to think in increasingly
sophisticated ways
31
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (2)
• Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
– The developmental psychologist Jean Piaget
investigated how children’s thinking changes
as they develop
– Piaget proposed that we change how we think
as we form new schemas, or ways of thinking
about how the world works
32
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (3)
33
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (4)
• Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
– Assimilation: The process we use to
incorporate new information into existing
frameworks for knowledge
– Accommodation: The process we use to
create new frameworks for knowledge or
drastically alter existing ones to incorporate
new information that otherwise would not fit
34
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (5)
• Stages of development: Birth to 2 years
– Sensorimotor stage: The first stage in
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development;
during this stage, infants acquire information
about the world through their senses and
motor skills
• Object permanence
35
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (6)
• Stages of development: 2 to 7 years
– Preoperational stage: The second stage in
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development;
during this stage, children think symbolically
about objects, but they reason based on
intuition and superficial appearances rather
than logic
• Law of conservation
• Centration
• Egocentrism
36
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (7)
• Stages of development: 7 to 12 years
– Concrete operational stage: The third stage
in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development;
during this stage, children begin to think about
and understand logical operations, and they
are no longer fooled by appearances
37
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (8)
• Stages of development: 12 to adulthood
– Formal operational stage: The final stage in
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development;
during this stage, people can think abstractly,
and they can formulate and test hypotheses
through logic
38
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (9)
39
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (10)
• New ways of thinking about Piaget’s
theory
– We now know that Piaget underestimated the
ages at which certain skills develop
– Psychologists now think of cognitive
development in terms of trends rather than
strict stages
40
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (11)
41
Infants and Children Change
Cognitively (12)
42
Language Develops in an Orderly
Way (1)
• From 0 to 60,000
– Language is a system in which sounds and
symbols are used according to grammatical
rules
• Morphemes
• Phonemes
• Syntax
43
Language Develops in an Orderly
Way (2)
44
Language Develops in an Orderly
Way (3)
– Babbling: Intentional vocalization, often by an infant,
with no specific meanings
– Telegraphic speech: The tendency for toddlers to
speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing
words and grammatical markings but follow a logical
syntax and convey a wealth of meaning
– Overregularization: The tendency for young children
to incorrectly use a regular syntax rule where they
should use an exception to the rule
45
4.3 How Do Adolescents
Develop?
• Adolescence starts at the end of childhood
around ages 11 to 14 and lasts until ages
18 to 21
46
Adolescents Develop
Physically (1)
• Onset of puberty
– Puberty: The physical changes in the body that are a
part of sexual development
– Secondary sex characteristics: Physical changes
during puberty that are not directly related to
reproduction but that indicate the difference between
the sexes
– Primary sex characteristics: Physical development
during puberty that results in sexually mature
reproductive organs and genitals
47
Adolescents Develop
Physically (2)
48
Adolescents Develop
Physically (3)
• Brain changes during adolescence
– Synaptic connections are refined and gray
matter increases
– The frontal cortex of the brain is not fully
developed until the early 20s
– An adolescent’s limbic system—the
motivational and emotional center of the
brain—tends to be more active than the
frontal cortex
49
Adolescents Develop Socially
and Emotionally (1)
• As adolescents develop a sense of
identity, of who they are, they are
influenced by many factors, including
– The culture in which they are raised
– Their gender
– Their beliefs about personal characteristics
such as race, sex, and age
50
Adolescents Develop Socially
and Emotionally (2)
• Developing a unique identity
– Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial
development
– According to Erikson’s theory, adolescents
face perhaps the most fundamental
challenge: how to develop an adult identity
• Identity versus role confusion: The fifth stage of
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, in
which adolescents face the challenge of figuring
out who they are
51
Adolescents Develop Socially
and Emotionally (3)
52
Adolescents Develop Socially
and Emotionally (4)
• Ethnic identity
– Culture shapes much of who we are as we
develop a full sense of identity during
adolescence
– Culture also determines whether each
person’s identity will be accepted or rejected
53
Adolescents Develop Socially
and Emotionally (5)
• Parents and peers
– As adolescents develop their own identities,
they come into more conflict with their parents
– Peers play a crucial role in identity
development
54
Adolescents Develop Socially
and Emotionally (6)
55
Adolescents Develop Cognitively (1)
• Moral reasoning and moral emotions
– When is it acceptable to take an action that
may harm others or that may break implicit or
explicit social contracts?
– Moral emotions, such as embarrassment and
shame, are considered self-conscious
emotions
56
Adolescents Develop Cognitively (2)
• Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning
1. Preconventional level: Earliest level of
moral development; at this level, self-interest
and event outcomes determine what is
moral
2. Conventional level: Middle level of moral
development; at this level, societal laws and
the approval of others determine what is
moral
57
Adolescents Develop Cognitively (3)
3. Postconventional level: Highest level of
moral development; at this level, decisions
about morality depend on abstract principles
and the value of all life
58
4.4 How Do We Develop in
Adulthood?
• A wide range of research has
demonstrated that throughout adulthood,
important changes occur
– Physically
– Socio-emotionally
– Cognitively
59
Our Bodies Change in Adulthood (1)
• Early to middle adulthood
– Between the ages of 20 and 40, we actually
experience a steady decline in muscle mass,
bone density, eyesight, and hearing
60
Our Bodies Change in Adulthood (2)
• Transition to old age
– By 2030, more than one in five Americans will
be over age 65, and these older people will be
ethnically diverse, well educated, and
physically fit
• The body and mind start deteriorating more rapidly
at about age 50
61
Adults Develop Lifelong Social
and Emotional Bonds (1)
• Psychosocial challenges
– Erikson’s theory in later life
• Intimacy versus isolation: Sixth stage of
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, in
which young adults face the challenge of forming
committed long-term friendships and romances
• Generativity versus stagnation: Seventh stage
of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development,
in which middle-aged adults face the challenge of
leaving behind a positive legacy and caring for
future generations
62
Adults Develop Lifelong Social
and Emotional Bonds (2)
• Integrity versus despair: Eighth stage of Erikson’s
theory of psychosocial development, in which older
adults face the challenge of feeling satisfied that they
have lived a good life and developed wisdom
63
Adults Develop Lifelong Social
and Emotional Bonds (3)
• Marriage
– Around the world, the vast majority of people
marry at some point in their lives or form
some type of permanent bond with a
relationship partner
• The benefits of marriage are more significant for
men than for women
• At any given time, the vast majority of married
people report satisfaction with their marriages
64
Adults Develop Lifelong Social
and Emotional Bonds (4)
• Having children
– The birth of a first child is a profound event for
most couples
• Children can strain a marriage by putting demands
on time and money
• Couples with children, especially those with
adolescent children, report less marital satisfaction
than those who are childless
65
Adults Develop Lifelong Social
and Emotional Bonds (5)
• Finding meaning in later life
– Meaning often becomes a preoccupation for
the elderly
– Older adults generally want to savor their final
years by putting their time and effort into
meaningful and rewarding experiences
66
The Mental Abilities of Adults
Begin to Decline (1)
• A senior moment
– The inability to remember something we knew
a moment before
– We may not notice cognitive decline until later
adulthood, although it begins much earlier
67
The Mental Abilities of Adults
Begin to Decline (2)
• Intelligence, learning, and memory
– Older people tend to have difficulty with
memory tasks that require juggling multiple
pieces of information at the same time
68
The Mental Abilities of Adults
Begin to Decline (3)
69
The Mental Abilities of Adults
Begin to Decline (4)
– Dementia: Severe impairment in intellectual
capacity and personality, often due to damage
to the brain
• 3 percent to 5 percent of people will develop
Alzheimer’s disease by age 70 to 75, and 6.5
percent will develop the disease after age 85
• The initial symptoms of Alzheimer’s are typically
minor memory impairments, but the disease
eventually progresses to more serious difficulties,
such as forgetting daily routines
70
The Mental Abilities of Adults
Begin to Decline (5)
• Well-being in older adults
– Despite the physical, social, and emotional
challenges of aging, most older adults are
healthy and happy
– Except for dementia, older adults have fewer
mental health problems, including depression,
than younger adults
71

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