PSYCH 256 University of Waterloo Hormones and Behavior Coronavirus Pandemic Questions Pick 1 question to answer from each chapter. each with 250 words.

PSYCH 256 University of Waterloo Hormones and Behavior Coronavirus Pandemic Questions Pick 1 question to answer from each chapter. each with 250 words.

Hunger, Thirst, & Metabolism (Chapter 9)

1. Scenario: At a friend’s birthday celebration you eat 3 slices of cake and 5 cookies. Over the next hour you become very dizzy and weak, but by the next morning you begin to feel back to normal. During the next few days you notice that whenever you eat carbohydrate- or sugar-rich foods you feel dizzy afterwards and in general you are starting to feel tired and low energy all the time. Your doctor wants to check to see if you might have diabetes mellitus. What should your doctor check in your blood or target tissues (ex. muscles, liver) to find out which type of diabetes mellitus you might have, and in either case what would be dangerous about treating you for the type of diabetes mellitus you don’t have? (3 points)

2. Scenario: You are a scientist tasked with figuring out why some of the female rats in your laboratory keep eating food until they are obese and have trouble moving. Even then they stay close to their food bowl so they can keep nibbling food throughout the day and night. If you could examine the obese female rats’ brain and body tissue (including fat, pancreas, intestines, ovaries, blood, etc.) what would you look at or measure and why? (4 points)

3. Scenario: You are in charge of designing a new sports drink for athletes to consume during and immediately after intense exercise. Briefly describe the fuel and hydration needs of an athlete after a long period of exercise and what types of energy, solute, and liquid ingredients you would mix together in your drink and why. (3 points)

Hormones & Stress (Chapter 11)

1. Scenario: You are working on a group project worth 50% of your grade in a class. One of the group members is not showing up to meetings and has not made any contribution on their portion of the project. The project is due in one week. Group Member A finds this stressful, Group Member B does not. Explain how these two people might perceive this situation differently, based on the psychological variables and personality traits we talked about in class. Talk about at least ONE (1) psychological variable and ONE (1) personality trait for each person. (4 points)

2. Knowing what you do about how early life stress affects brain development and behavior, how can we improve prenatal care of pregnant people? Use the findings of at least two scientific studies we talked about to support your answer. (3 points)

3. In the following situations would the person be hypophagic (not hungry) or hyperphagic (hungry) during the majority of the stress response (beginning with CRH release and ending when Cortisol levels return to baseline)? Describe how the different hormones influence hunger and describe the HPA Axis response over time for CRH and Cortisol for TWO (2) of the following scenarios. (3 points)

Effect of CRH on hunger:
Effect of Cortisol on hunger:

A. Someone jumps out to scare you

B. You have a constantly itchy rash over your entire body for a week

C. You have a bad day of stressful things happening one after another

Hormones & Social Behavior (Chapter 8)

1. Oxytocin and vasopressin both regulate affiliation. How do these two hormones act in the brain to generate this behavior? How does experiencing stress, and the main hormone released during the stress response, influence affiliation? (3 points)

2. You are a doctor and a patient comes to see you because the partner is concerned about a sudden increase in aggressive behavior. With your knowledge of the hormonal and neurotransmitter basis underlying aggression, what would you analyze or measure in the blood or brain of the patient and what drug treatment would you prescribe to reduce the aggression? (4 points)

3. Discuss the pros and cons of social behavior in the context of mitigating the spread of coronavirus and COVID-19. Why does “social distancing” work to minimize the spread? What is a benefit of social support, and how can we engage in this behavior without person-to-person contact in this time of prolonged and elevated stress? (3 points)

Hormones & Affect (Chapter 13)

1. Perimenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a relatively “new” phenomenon in human evolutionary history (within past 300 years or so). Thus, right now we are in the stages of categorizing and describing it as a collection of symptoms and have not deemed whether or not it is a medical condition. (This is in contrast to the severe premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) which is a classified medical condition.) Describe the hormonal/biological basis underlying some of the physical and psychological symptoms of PMS argue for or against classifying PMS as a medical disorder. In other words, even if PMS symptoms are biologically driven, are they pathological? (3 points)

2. For someone with seasonal affective disorder (SAD) would taking melatonin supplements at certain times during day or night be adequate treatment to relieve their symptoms? Why or why not? (3 points)

3. Describe how normal light patterns entrain our internal clock and circadian rhythms. How can we protect or improve the health of people who repeatedly expose themselves to artificial light at night (LAN)? Use the findings of at least two scientific studies we talked about to support your answer. (4 points) Chapter 11: Stress
April
Psych 256 Hormones & Behavior
Spring 2020
Outline
? Part 1: The Stress Response
? Part 2: Factors that Influence Stress
? Part 3: Effects of Early Life Stress
? Part 4: Pathological Stress
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Part 1: The Stress Response
What is Stress?
• What is stress?
• Why do we have it?
• What do we find “stressful”?
• What do other animals find
“stressful”?
• How do we deal with stress?
google search
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• How do animals deal with stress?
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Stress: Vocabulary
Stressor: disrupts homeostasis
PBS kids
Stress response: body’s attempt to restore homeostasis
?
?
?
?
?
mobilization of immediate energy to move muscles
increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing
halts long-term energy usage (digestion, reproduction, growth, immune system)
blunted pain perception
memory and sensation improved
Anxiety: stress response without trigger or over something we can’t control
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Stress
Can stress make us sick?
? Stress response too long: more damage > good
? even if the stressor is psychological and poses no physical demand on body
? Stress increases risk of disease ? sickness
? If you have a disease ? stress depletes defense resources faster
Long Term consequences of stress
?
?
?
?
burn through energy more quickly
don’t repair damage in body
reproductive issues
suppressed immune system means reduced ability to fight infections
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The Stress Response
2) SYMPATHETIC NS
1) HPA AXIS
Neurotransmitters/hormones:
norepinephrine/epinephrine
Hormones: glucocorticoids/cortisol
Timescale: Slow
Timescale: Fast acting
? Takes effect: minutes
? Lasts: minutes-hours
? Takes effect: seconds
? Lasts: seconds
Target: Body & Brain (cortisol can
cross into the brain)
Target: Body (respiratory &
cardiovascular systems)
Stress Response Timeline
1
2
seconds
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minutes
hours
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The HPA Axis
Hypothalamus ? main Integrator of what’s
(brain)
happening in your body
CRH
Anterior Pituitary Gland
(brain)
ACTH
Adrenal Cortex
(adrenal glands)
glucocorticoids/cortisol
Integrative Therapeutics
Fall 2020
Receptors throughout body that act to mobilize energy
and shut down unnecessary functions temporarily
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Autonomic Nervous System
Two opposing systems that involuntarily control how you respond to
stressful stimuli and return to normal afterward.
Sympathetic “Fight or Flight”
? Vigilance, arousal, activation,
mobilization
? Main chemicals: norepinephrine or
epinephrine (at adrenal glands)
Parasympathetic “Rest & Digest”
? Growth, energy storage
? Main chemical: acetylcholine
? Stress Response
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Autonomic Nervous System
How do both branches affect:
• Pupils
• Salivation
• Heartbeat
• Digestion
Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers, p.21 (modified)
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Brain senses stressor
Hypothalamus releases CRH
Sympathetic Nervous System
Spinal Cord
Norepinephrine
(neurotransmitter)
Norepinephrine +
Epinephrine
(hormones)
Functions:
• rerouting blood to skeletal muscles (from smooth muscles)
• Increased heart rate
• Released glucose (energy) from reserves
• Shut down immunity, reproduction, and growth
Muscles and Organs
throughout body
Antranik.org
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The Stress
Response
illustration source
Is the response to a stressor the same every time?
? HPA Axis & Sympathetic Nervous System are involved
? Factors influencing how you respond to stress:
? speed and magnitude of each signal
? sensitivity of the tissue responding to these signals
? psychological state
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Part 2: Factors that Influence Stress
Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
Building blocks of psychological stressors
Manipulating these variables is a main reason why people perceive stressors differently.
1. Having an outlet for frustration
2. Social support system
3. Predictability
4. How much control you have over the situation
5. Perception of things worsening
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Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
Having an Outlet for Frustration
? What is a possible physiological explanation for why taking out your
frustration in a physical way diminishes your feelings of stress?
(think of how the autonomic nervous system works)
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Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
Social Support System
Having friends to interact with during or after a stressor decreases its
stressfulness.
? What is the role of a social support system in diminishing feelings of
stress?
? If you’re normally socially isolated, how would this affect your normal
stress response?
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Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
Predictability
Predictability makes things less stressful. If we know a stressor is coming,
we can try to relax at other times.
? Which is more stressful in the moment: scheduled exam or pop quiz?
? When might predictability make things more stressful?
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Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
How much control you have over the situation
Demand and control in a situation influence how stressed you feel.
When you have control of the situation you can handle more, but when
you have no control over how things get done and you have a lot to do it
is usually more stressful.
? Think of a situation where gaining control alleviates stress.
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Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
Perception of things worsening
Scenario: today you have a 25% chance of running late.
? When would this be bad news?
? When would this be good news?
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Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
Personality affects perceived stress (https://www.123test.com/personality-test/)
FIVE FACTOR MODEL of Personality
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Factors that Influence
Perception of Stressors
Personality affects perceived stress
Trait
Effect on Stress Why it affects Stress?
Openness
decreases
You don’t rely as much on predictability +
control
Decreases long term You avoid stressful situations because you have
Conscientiousness stress
a higher level of predictability + control
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
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decreases
You are more likely to have social support;
networking in life won’t be as stressful
decreases
You are more likely to have social support
increases
You have a greater perception of things
worsening and need control
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Part 3: Early Life Stress
Effects of Early Life Stress
? Prenatal stress (during pregnancy)
?Rats
?Humans
? Neonatal stress (newborn)
?Rats
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Effects of Early Life Stress
Prenatal Stress (during pregnancy)
In Rats
• Methods: 30-60m of restraint stress during last 3rd of pregnancy
• Maternal effects:
? Activation of the HPA axis
? Equal attention towards offspring (instead of more towards males)
• Offspring effects:
? Permanent changes in brain morphology, physiology, and behavior
? Males: shifts peak testosterone during gestation two days earlier
• As adults: fail to ejaculate during mating
• Altered sexual dimorphisms in brain (MPOA)
? Females: normal reproductive/sexual and parental behaviors
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Effects of Early Life Stress
Prenatal Stress (during pregnancy)
In Rats
• Offspring effects (continued):
? Both: when stressed as adults they release less prolactin
? Impaired HPA axis negative feedback as adults
• Reduced cortisol receptors in brain
(can’t receive signal to shut off system)
• Less prolactin to act as negative feedback
? Behavioral Effects: more likely to display
anxiety-like behaviors and self-administer
cocaine or amphetamines as adults
X
+ Prolactin
? Cortisol
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Effects of Early Life Stress
Prenatal Stress (during pregnancy)
In Humans
• Offspring effects:
?
?
?
?
?
Reduced birth weight
Developmental delays
Attentional deficits
Hyperanxiety
Impaired social behaviors
• Cortisol in utero ? low birth weight ? adult cardiovascular and
metabolic disorders (ex. hypertension & insulin resistance)
? = “corresponds with”
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Effects of Early Life Stress
MOTHER
PLACENTA
FETUS
?Cortisol
Cortisol ? Cortisone
?Cortisol
?11?-HSD2 enzyme
? Normal: enzyme in placenta breaks down cortisol from mother
before it reaches the fetus
? Stress: less enzyme is made ? more cortisol reaches fetus
? Adult offspring: ?cortisol receptors in amygdala ? ?sensitive to stress
Fun fact: low protein diet while pregnant also reduces enzyme
O’Donnell et al., 2009; Dev Neuro
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CNS Development
Effects of Early Life Stress
Prenatal Stress (during pregnancy)
In Humans
Does type of stress matter: psychological vs. physical
Walsh et al., 2019; PNAS
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Effects of Early Life Stress
Neonatal Stress (newborn)
In Rats
• Methods: 24hrs of isolation from mother + injection of saline
• Offspring effects:
? Baseline ACTH + Cortisol levels are higher as adults
? Effect is stronger in female vs. male offspring
? Contact comfort from an anesthetized lactating female during isolation from
mother blocks this elevated HPA response in later life
Moderate neonatal stress exaggerates the adult stress response.
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Effects of Early Life Stress
Neonatal Stress (newborn)
In Rats
• Methods: 3hrs of isolation from mother
• Offspring effects:
? HPA axis response is normal as adults
? Impaired neurogenesis + cell proliferation in hippocampus
? If adrenalectomized as adults: no change in cell proliferation
Prolonged periods of neonatal stress impair neurogenesis and hippocampal
plasticity as adults, because the hippocampus is now hypersensitive to
normal HPA response.
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Effects of Early Life Stress
? Prenatal stress (during pregnancy)
?Rats
? Reduced negative feedback of HPA ? prolonged stress response
?Humans
? Decreased enzyme in placenta allows more cortisol to cross to fetus
? Physical vs. psychological stress differentially affects pregnancy/offspring
? Neonatal stress (newborn)
?Rats
? Exaggerated stress response as adults
? Impaired neurogenesis and hippocampal plasticity as adult
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Part 4: Pathological Stress
Pathological Stress
? Heart disease, embolisms, strokes
& irritable bowel syndrome
& brittle nails, slow hair growth
? Infertility
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Stress & Reproduction: Ovaries
HPG (Ovaries) Axis
1
2
2
Same interactions with
HPG (Testes) Axis
3
?estrogen ??sexual motivation, performance, and fertility
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Stress & Ovulation: Ovaries
Longer Cycles/Anovulation/Amenorrhea
? Preventing LH + Estrogen surge will block ovulation
? HPG signaling required for normal menstrual cycle stages
Decreased Libido
? Low estrogen ? decreased proceptivity & receptivity
? Less tactile sensitivity in genitalia
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Stress & Eating
Review: How does the stress response affect digestion?
However, 2/3 of people become hyperphagic when they’re stressed.
Timeline of Normal HPA Response
CRH – Inhibits appetite
Cortisol – increases appetite
Level
Cortisol makes you want
starchy, sugary, fatty foods
Stop & Think: When on this
timeline would you be hungry?
Time
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Stress & Eating
Timeline of Chronic HPA Response
CRH – Inhibits appetite
Cortisol – increases appetite
Level
Cortisol makes you want
starchy, sugary, fatty foods
Stop & Think: When on this
timeline would you be hungry?
Time
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Stress & Eating
Timeline of Frequent-Intermittent HPA Response
CRH – Inhibits appetite
Cortisol – increases appetite
Level
Cortisol makes you want
starchy, sugary, fatty foods
Stop & Think: When on this
timeline would you be hungry?
Time
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Stress & Fat
? Cortisol receptors on fat cells trigger nutrients to be stored as fat
? Abdominal fat cells have more cortisol receptors
? Elevated cortisol triggers more fat storage,
specifically in abdomen versus
gluteal fat on hips
? Abdominal fat is more dangerous and
increase risk for metabolic and
cardiac disease and diabetes.
? Apple shape: more likely due to high stress
? Pear shape: healthy storage or consumed calories
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Review
?What are the signals that control the stress response?
?Why might two people perceive the same “stressor” as
stressful or not stressful?
?How does stress in early life affect brain development
and the stress response as an adult?
?How can a prolonged stress response endanger your
health?
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Quiz 2:
Hunger, Thirst & Metabolism
Thursday, March 5 & Tuesday, March 10
Psych 256 Hormones & Behavior
Spring 2020
Homeostasis:
Internal Balance
Your body has optimal settings for:
? Body temperature
? Water level
? Nutrient levels: sodium, potassium, sugar, protein
When internal balance is thrown off in response to a
stimulus, behaviors such as hunger and thirst are
activated to regain homeostasis.
HORMONES & BEHAVIOR — SPRING 2020
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Energy Balance
How does the body keep necessary energy levels
when eating is episodic and not continuous?
HORMONES & BEHAVIOR — SPRING 2020
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Energy Use & Storage after Eating
brain
2a. Glucose is energy
for the brain.
2b. Pancreas senses
glucose in blood and
releases insulin.
liver
4. Glucose + insulin fuel muscles or
can be stored in the muscles and liver.
When you need more fuel this storage
is used first.
brain
pancreas
1. Food broken down in the
stomach into glucose, fatty
acids, and amino acids.
Nutrients sent into blood.
muscles
3. Glucose and
insulin travel in the
blood together.
HORMONES & BEHAVIOR — SPRING 2020
fat
5. Excess glucose is stored in fat.
6. Leptin hormone is released from fat and
tells the hypothalamus to decrease appetite.
4
Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 Diabetes “childhood diabetes”
?Autoimmune disorder
?Cells in the pancreas that make insulin are destroyed by the
immune system
?Body makes little/no insulin
?Tissue such as muscles and the liver can’t use glucose for fuel
?Treatment: insulin administration through injection or pump
? Pump system: can sense glucose levels and adjust the insulin
output (or manually set)
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Diabetes Mellitus
Type 2 Diabetes “adult onset diabetes”
? Insulin receptors throughout body become resistant to
binding insulin (and cells are denied access to glucose)
? Cells deprived of glucose signal for more insulin
? Fat (adipose) tissue last to become insensitive and stores
all of the glucose that cannot be used throughout the
body resulting in increased fat tissue
? Treatment:
? Early: diet low in sugar and processed foods
? Late: pancreas stops making insulin so it needs to be
administered to allow for any glucose utilization
Types 1 & 2: reduced insulin signaling leads to high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)
• high blood glucose can damage neurons and blood vessels
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Ketogenic Diet
brain
Traditional Diet
*High carbohydrate/sugar
Low fat
Protein
2a. The brain gets
the limited glucose
for some energy.
Ketogenic Diet
Low carbohydrate/sugar
*High fat
Protein
fat
4. The liver breaks
down fat into
ketone bodies.
liver
1. Food broken down in the
stomach into glucose, fatty
acids, and amino acids.
Nutrients sent into blood.
2b. Fatty acids
travel in the blood.
HORMONES & BEHAVIOR — SPRING 2020
muscles
3. Fatty acids are
stored in fat.
brain
5. Ketone bodies are
used to fuel muscle
and are a source of
glucose for the brain.
7
Hunger Behavior
How does the body tell the brain to eat or stop eating?
HORMONES & BEHAVIOR — SPRING 2020
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Hervey, 1959; J. Physiol.
University of Cambridge
Hormonal Control of Food Intake
How did we know hormones (something traveling in the blood) control eating behavior?
Rat 1
• Removed part of
hypothalamus
• Overate until obese
Rat 2
• Normal but connected to
bloodstream of Rat 1
• Refused food until it starved
Finding: Rat 1’s brain couldn’t receive the signal
that it was full, but Rat 2’s hypothalamus could
Bodies and bloodstreams are sewn together
parabiosis
? Rat 1: kept eating because it didn’t know it was full
? Rat 2: kept receiving the “I’m full” signal from the
blood of Rat 1 and wouldn’t eat
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affect
Control of Food Intake
Time of day
Social Situation
Pleasurable Experience
Leptin
Insulin
Ghrelin
1. Sensory Systems
(input)
2. Brain/Central
Nervous System
(integrator)
3. Muscles
(effectors)
• These cues tell us it is time to eat
Arcuate Nucleus
(hypothalamus)
4. Behavior
(output)
HORMONES & BEHAVIOR — SPRING 2020
• Not directly affected by hormones
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Hormonal Control of Food Intake
Hypothalamus
?Leptin
High Fat Stores ?Insulin
?Ghrelin
Low Fat Stores
?Leptin
?Insulin
?Ghrelin
1. Fat stores in the body
and food being digested
control levels of leptin,
insulin, and ghrelin.
Arcuate
Nucleus
(ARC)
POMC
NPY
AgRP
Lateral
Hypothalamus
Area (LHA)
+
Paraventricular
Nucleus (PVN)
?MSH
Decreased Eating
NPY
AgRP
Increased Eating
2. Leptin, insulin, and ghrelin 3a. Under high fat store conditions the hormones cause POMC
activate the arcuate nucleus neurons to release ?MSH neurotransmitter which decreases eating.
of the hypothalamus.
3b. Under low fat store conditions the hormones trigger NPY/AgRP
neurons to release NPY & AgRP neurotransmitters which increase eating.
HORMONES & BEHAVIOR — SPRING 2020
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Hormonal Control of Food Intake
Leptin (released from fat)
?Levels of leptin correlate with fat stores
?As fat is being used for energy leptin levels drop and the dropping level acts as a starvation cue
?High levels of leptin activate the hypothalamus to decrease eating, support reproduction & immunity
Insulin (released from pancreas)
?When insulin levels drop as food is absorbed, hunger is activated
?Insulin signaling in the hypothalamus indicates fuel levels in the body to help make decisions about eating
Ghrelin (released from intestines)
?High levels increase food intake
?Ghrelin inhibits every level of the HPG axis which inhibits reproductive behavior, acting as a cue that
insufficient energy is available
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Why crash diets don’t work
1.
Each body has its own ideal Leptin baseline and body fat level
2.
Crash diet: suddenly eating little/no food in the hope your body will burn fat for fuel
3.
As fat stores drop leptin levels go down
4.
Dropping leptin levels will cue the brain you’re in “starvation mode” and drive hunger until
you restore leptin levels to your body’s ideal level
Can you alter your eating pattern so leptin levels won’t derail your plan?
? If you slowly restrict eating in small increments you can retrain your body to accept lower
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