Integrating Literacy Skills Relation to Zone of Proximal Development Paper PART 1 Integrating Literacy Skills Vygotsky identified the Zone of Proximal De

Integrating Literacy Skills Relation to Zone of Proximal Development Paper PART 1

Integrating Literacy Skills

Vygotsky identified the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as the ideal range for instruction.

What problems are related to integrating listening and speaking, reading, and writing in relation to the ZPD?
How does this influence instruction?

Requirements:

1.) Some of your thoughts in reference to your assigned readings, with

2.) Your personal observations and experiences, and pulling in

3.) Perspective from at least one outside source.

Must be, at minimum, 3 paragraphs of 6-8 well-developed sentences

APA citations are required only in the original response

PART 2

Reply to both discussion post I have attach.

Here are guidelines to follow in your response.

Each Responses should be a minimum, 1 paragraph of 6-8 well-developed sentences .

Your contribution should be such that it adds to and moves our discussion forward constructive way. In responding to post, see that you’re supplementing their ideas with original thoughts, observations, or research of your own. HAYAGREEVA RAO
How Activists Make or Break Radical Innovations
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
Princeton and Oxford
Chapter 4
The Nouvelle Cuisine Innovation
Table4.1
Escoffier’s First Menu: December 16, 1897
Hors d’oeuvre
Caviar and blinis
Consomme of beef, chicken, and turtle, thickened with arrowroot,
garnished with diced turtle and Madeira wine
Chicken consomme, garnished with shoots
Young turbot with a sauce of Vol nay wine, garnished with lettuce
Sole filleted and cooked in butter, dressed in timbale with a garnish
of small potatoes, slices of truffles rolled in meat glaze
Poularde fillets with truffles
Beans from the Marais
Venison with minced mushrooms and shallots
Chestnut souffle
Crayfish with pepper sauce, juniper berries, Marsala
Sorbet rose
Spit-roasted snipes
freshness, natural flavors, and exotic spices. Instead of the
foie gras soaked in Rhone wine as in Escoffier’s Ritz, one
might have encountered foie gras with Chinese cabbage and
grilled groundnuts. Similarly, Escoffier’s crayfish in muscovite sauce might have yielded to a fricassee of lobster, the
fish in heavy sauces would have been replaced by linecaught fish served grilled, and instead of the venison
drenched in sauce, one would encounter grilled calf sweetbreads. The heavy millefeuille dessert would have been replaced by a granita of mocha. This was the nouvelle cuisine
revolution.
How did classical cuisine succumb? The method of its
Celeriac salad from Perigord
demise and the rise of nouvelle cuisine provide an interesting
Argentuil asparagus
glimpse into the social sources of radical technological
Foie gras poached in Rhone wine
change in creative industries such as the arts, music, food,
Sicilian bombe
and drama.
As alluded to in chapter 3, creative industries suffer
from a “cost disease” and lag in productivity behind the
general economy. In such industries, the conditions of production inhibit radical technological change because the
“work of the performer is an end in itself.” 1 String quartets
are not peddling something beyond a given performance;
they are not trying to give the consumer more Beethoven
Fruity millefeuille
Thus, while one of Escoffier’s employees went on to lead a
revolution elsewhere, classical cuisine remained undisturbed
for several decades.
It was only in 1972 that a band of young, rebellious
French chefs-Paul Bocuse, Alain Chapel, Michel Guerard,
70
George Blanc, and the Troisgros brothers-aided by two
culinary journalists, Henri Gault and Christian Millau, led
a revolution that subverted the tenets of classical cuisine.
Had one visited Maison Troisgros in the early 1970s, the
menu would have featured very different cooking techniques than Escoffier’s, with methods that emphasized
71
The Nouvelle Cuisine Innovation
Chapter 4
for the buck. If this is the case, how does disruptive technological chauge lead to new products and new processes
in the cr~ative arts? More specifically, creative industries,
as the sociologist Howard Becker suggests, feature artworlds-networks of cooperative production among artists,
support personnel, critics, and the final consumer-which
are governed by conventions that specify the materials to be
used, and the techniques that are employed require cooperation among the various actors. 2 Conventions constrain in-
novation; support personnel and gatekeepers have incentives to preserve the status quo. How are conventions
breached?
In this chapter I draw on my research on haute cuisine
restaurants in France during the period 1970-97 to demonstrate how collective action spurred the ascent of nouvelle
cuisine as a style, and rebels articulated a hot causefreedom from Escoffier-and relied on cool mobilization
through fresh, exotic ingredients and improvisation by
chefs. The nouvelle cuisine movement sought to transform
the identity of the chef from a technician following the instructions of Escoffier into an inventor. Once the heat that
11
The Codification of Classical Cuisine as a Style
The French Revolution of 1789 undermined the logic of cuisine
in the ancien regime, wherein meals were public spectacles
organized according to hierarchy and the chef was virtually
owned by patrons or nobles. But after the French Revolution,
chefs who once worked in the houses of private patrons offered
their services to the public by establishing restaurants in Paris
and its environs. Haute cuisine shifted from private homes into
public restaurants, the spectacle of the banquet was replaced by
a more intimate encounter, the hierarchy of the banquet of the
ancien regime was supplanted by a more egalitarian order, and
the extravagance of banquets gave way to economy.4
An informal and decentralized effort to systematize the
it became cool for chefs to borrow and blend ingredients
and techniques from both styles.’ French gastronomy is a
creative industry and its high-brow status contrasts nicely
with the worlds of beer and radio that we explored in
chapter 3. Moreover, French gastronomy is interesting
because restaurants pursue profits by selling short-lived
principles of this cuisine was led by chefs and gastronomic
journalists. An10ng these writers, the most influential was
Antonin Careme (1784-1833), a chef who worked in the
houses of great patrons such as Talleyrand. He pioneered the
effort to systematize the principles of the modern cuisine
that emerged after the French Revolution. Careme disparaged the old cuisine of the ancien regime because it did not
mesh with the zeitgeist of post-revolutionary France, and in
his Philosophical History of Cuisine (1833) he created a vision
of grande cuisine as both an art and a science. He simplified
meals so that there were four courses at dinner instead of
eight, gave more space to those sitting at the table, and
sought to redefine humble dishes such as pot-au-feu as the
essence of a French cuisine. He and his disciples produced
experiences.
sauces that were works of art; sauces such as bourguignonne,
divided nouvelle cuisine from classical cuisine dissipated,
salmis, sauce supreme, or sauce hollandaise camouflaged the
72
73
Chapter 4
meat, game, or fish being served rather than enhancing their
flavor. Stressing delicacy, order, and economy, CarE:me
brought symmetry to the service of meals and introduced a
new awareness of freshness and sanitation into the French
kitchen. Careme’s ideas quicldy diffused throughout the
kitchens of Parisian restaurants, as well as the rest of France,
and reshaped the culinary culture of the times. 5
Careme’s ideas were strengthened by a new breed of
chefs, which included Georges Auguste Escoffier (1847-1935)
and his circle of collaborators-including his friend Prosper
Montagne (1865-1948), author of the Larousse Gastronomique (1938), who worked in the kitchens of fashionable hotels that had been established in the major cities of Europe,
notably by Cesar Ritz, toward the end of the nineteenth century. If Careme’s books constituted the Old Testament, Escoffier’s Guide Culinaire, first published in 1903, was the New
Testament that formed the body of what came to be known
as classical cuisine, and it remains a central text in the train-
ing of professional cooks. Escoffier wrote down dishes in the
order of presentation (service ala Russe), and developed the
first a la carte menu. He simplified the art of cooking by getting rid of ostentatious food displays and elaborate garnishes, and reduced the number of courses served. He emphasized the use of seasonal foods and nrged that sauces be
used to reveal the flavors of game, meat, and fish rather than
to conceal them. Escoffier siniplified professional kitchen organization, integrating it into a single unit from its previ-
ously individualized sections that operated autonomously
and led to waste and duplication of labor. It was during the
Escoffier era that French haute cuisine achieved the undis74
The Nouvelle Cuisine Innovation
puted international hegemony that it had begun to acquire
since the Restoration. In the preface to the 1907 edition of
Guide Culinaire, Escoffier summarized classical cuisine as
follows: “In a word, cookery whilst continuing to be an art
will become scientific and will have to submit its formulas
which very often are still too empirical, to a method and precision which leaves nothing to chance.”
He conceived of classical cuisine as codified grammar of
culinary practice: a product can be cooked in different ways,
served with different sauces, and accompanied by different
fillings. Escoffier’s guide was issued in several editions and
remained the dominant orthodoxy until it was undermined
by the nouvelle cuisine movement. The French culinary
writer Claude Fischler identified five dimensions to understanding the cultural logic and role of identity of classical
cuisine: culinary rhetoric, rules of cooking, archetypal ingredients used, the role of the chef, and the organization of the
menu. 6 Table 4.2 displays these dimensions.’
The culinary rhetoric of classical cuisine reveals the emphasis on conservatism and preservation. Often, dishes were
named after the places, noblemen, or mythological characters associated with them. Moreover, cooking consisted of
the application of two principles: conformation to the rules
formulated by Careme and Escoffier, and sublimation of the
ingredients such that the raw material was visually transformed. The archetypal ingredients used were high game,
shellfish, cream, poultry, and river fish. The menu was organized so that it consisted of a long list and required substantial inventories in the restaurant. The chef was an employee
of the restaurant-owner and remained in the background.
75
Chapter 4
The Nouvelle Cuisine Innovation
Table4.2
The Classical Cuisine Code
Culinary Rhetoric
Names of dishes refer to rhetoric, memory,
and legitimacy
Rules of Cooking
Conformation, or staying in conformity with
Escoffier’s principles: gratins and quene!les,
terrines, pates, confits, jambons, jambonneaux, saucissons, boudins, andouillettes
Sublimation, or sublimating the ingredients:
brioches, croOtes, vessies, farces, eminces,
chaussons, croustades, vol au vent, sauces,
flambages (flambe), bisques, delices, dodines,
timbales, Chateaubriand
Archetypal Ingredients
Role of the Chef
Organization
of the Menu
High game, shellfish, cream, poultry,
river fish
The restaurateur, rarely the owner, and never
the cook, has the power in the rooms of luxury
hotels and palaces. The classical service is
organized through the saucepan. The waiters cut and serve the dishes, blaze (“flambe”)
preparations. The rituals are outside the plate.
Extremely long menu, almost all the classical
dishes are registered. Need for large inventories, therefore less freshness. Consuming is
a long ceremony. Related art is Architecture
(three dimensions). Relief and contours are
important. One sense is critical: vision.
ing> in transforming> in metamorphosing the raw materiat
to put it from Nature to Culture…. The maitre queruc was a
kind of grand ‘sophisticator; in the etymologic sense of’falsificator.’»8
This logic and role identity of chefs became institutionalized through a network of training schools such as Le Cordon Bleu and professional societies such as the Association
des Maitres Queruc. Although it was started in 1896 to provide training to housewives, Le Cordon Bleu began offering
courses in haute cuisine classique from
1900
that were first
overseen by Charles Driessens, then by Mademoiselle Distel
from 1904 until 1930, and later by Henri-Paul Pellaprat for
several decades. In 1950, forty chefs trained in haute cuisine
classique established the Association des Maitres Queux to
certify master chefs who were exponents of haute cuisine
and to ensure the highest standards of professional excellence. Classical cuisine reigned supreme for three decades
after Escoffier’s death in 1935 because of such training
schools and societies. Such was the ascendancy of classical
cuisine that the magazine Le Cordon Bleu had twenty-five
thousand subscribers in 1930 and became a drawing card in
its own right.
11
Autonomy as the Hot Cause and Improvisation
as Cool Mobilization
The rituals of dining prominently featured the waiter, who
Nouvelle cuisine arose because the events of May 1968 ex-
cut aud served dishes, flambeed the preparations, and orga-
posed contradictions between two values: conformity to Es-
nized the service through the saucepan. Fischler summarized
coffier and the autonomy of the che£ Just as the French Rev-
it as follows: “The art of the cook consisted in accommodat-
olution was the master movement that led to the death knell
77
The Nouvelle Cuisine Innovation
Chapter 4
of ancien regime cuisine and the construction of classical
cuisine by Careme and other gastronomic writers, the
events of May 1968 triggered the decline of classical cuisine
and the growth of the nouvelle cuisine movement. Fischler
writes,
The Grande Cuisine, at the end of the 1960s, experiences a kind of revolution and revelation. Beyond
this sudden vogue, there is a larger wave, one of
wide-ranging social and economical movements that
had been transforming the French society, and
wavelets, tbose that the larger wave indirectly induced in the Cuisine and catering industries. The
Grande Gastronomy crystallizes and precipitates latent trends in the society…. When studying the nature and content of the Nouvelle Cuisine, one could
perceive a large part of further evolutions in the attitudes and behaviors in France.’
The larger wave was the protests of May 1968, which hastened the wavelet of nouvelle cuisine. On May 6, 1968, students at the Sorbonne who were protesting against the punishment meted out to eight students at Nanterre for their
opposition to the Vietnam War were attacked by police on
the Boulevard St. Germain. Scores of students were arrested,
and many students and policemen were injured. Soon stu-
nated distinctions between those who gave orders and those
who took tlrem. France was on the verge of a revolution with
twelve million workers on strike, 122 factories occupied by
workers, and students battling against an authoritarian system. The anti-authoritarian wave of May 1968 amplified the
effect of undercurrents already visible in the literary, theater,
film, and culinary worlds through the le nouveau roman, la
nouvelle critique, le nouveau theatre, and la nouvelle vague
anti-schools. All of these anti-schools shared similar conceptual principles and challenged convention, hierarchy, and
rules.
The nouvelle cuisine movement was an echo of these
anti-schools; its first stirrings appeared in 1965 and were visible in 1972. Nouvelle cuisine was shaped and promoted by
activists in the center of the French culinary world, chefs who
had received the highest honors from the French state and
had garnered plaudits from the Guide Michelin. Nouvelle
cuisine was a bid to enhance the professional autonomy of
chefs. Under classical cuisine chefs possessed tire freedom to
establish their own restaurants in classical cuisine and design
their menus, and celebrity chefs with three Michelin stars
could also control financial promoters. However, no matter
how well trained chefs were, they lacked technical autonomy
because their role was to translate the intentions or prescrip-
tions ofEscoffier into products. Under classical cuisine, chefs
lacked the freedom to create and invent dishes, and the nou-
dents mobilized with marches, decried examinations as a rite
velle cuisine movement sought to make chefs into inventors
of initiation into capitalism, called for the triumph of the
“general will over the General” (De Gaulle), and sought to
create a society that valued personal autonomy and elirni-
rather than mere technicians.
Paul Bocuse and other activists were able to denounce
the lack of autonomy for chefs in classical cuisine because
79
Chapter 4
The Nouvelle Cuisine Innovation
their criticisms resonated with the sentiments against hierarchy that were gaining ground after the events of May 1968
Table4.3
and were also in tune with the avant-garde movements in the
Culinary Rhetoric
literary and artistic worlds. Bocuse and other co-evangelists
exploited the ideas of simplicity and economy in classical
cuisine to fashion a new logic and a new identity for chefs.
Just as students in Nantes and film directors such as Godard
challenged old rules such as exams or a stylized sequence of
shots, Bocuse and his allies questioned culinary conventions
and exhorted chefs to engage in culinary invention. In an
echo of the students’ protests against ostentation and fakery
and film-makers’ struggle for realism, the Troisgros brothers
and Alain Chapel wanted simplicity and economy of presentation. If literary critics like Barthes and Derrida sought to
portray the reader as a creator of meaning, Bocuse and
Chapel wanted chefs to have a role in creating and inventing
dishes rather than simply understanding the intentions of
Escoffier. Table 4.3 displays the nouvelle cuisine code. 10
Nouvelle cuisine relied on the rules of transgression and
acclimatization. Transgression consisted of using old cooking techniques with new ingredients or with old ingredients
in illegitimate ways, mixing meat and fish, creating salads
that mixed vegetables and foie gras, and serving pot-au-feu
with fish. Acclimatization meant importing exotic foreign
cuisine traditions, notably seasoning and spices. Two influences can be identified: the influence from Japanese cuisine
during the late 1970s, when most of the evangelists traveled
to Japan, and the growing influence of former colonies and
immigrants.11 The ingredients of nouvelle cuisine included
fruits, vegetables, potatoes, aromatic herbs, exotic ingredi80
Nouvelle Cuisine Code
Appellations refer to poetry, imagination, and
evocation: small (petit), diminutives,
eminces, alleges; symphonies, trilogies,
menus, assiettes
Rules of Cooking
Transgression: using old cooking techniques
with new ingredients or with old ingredients:
mixing meat and fish; a salad mixing
vegetables and foie gras; pot-au-feu with
fish
Acclimatization: importing “exotic” foreign
cuisine traditions, notably seasoning and
spices, including fresh pasta, ravioli,
cannelloni, cheesecake, cappuccino,
crumble, carpaccio, pudding, presskop~
risotto, tajine
Archetypal Ingredients
Fruits, vegetables, potatoes, aromatic herbs,
exotic ingredients, sea fish
Role of the Chef
The chef is at the center of operations. With
“service
ala japonaise” (service through the
plate and service under a cloche), waiters’
role minimized.
Organization
Very narrow menu, even no menu: chefs
of the Menu
propose “Cuisine du Marche,” “Cuisine
selon saison.” No inventories to increase
freshness. Consuming is a shorter
ceremony.
Related art is Painting (two dimensions):
service through the plate leads cooks to add
products only for aesthetic reasons. Colors,
contrasts, decoration, and the five senses
are important.
The Nouvelle Cuisine Innovation
Chapter 4
ents, and sea fish. The role of the chef was reframed to that of
an innovator, creator, and owner, and the role of the waiter
was minimized. Service ala japonaise or service through the
plate (first offered by Troisgros in the late 1960s) and service
under a cloche (first presented by Guerard in the early 1970s)
minimized the role of the waiter. The nouvelle cuisine menu
was far shorter than the classical cuisine menu and large inventories became superfluous since chefs emphasized freshness. Service through the plate and service under a cloche led
cooks to add products only for aesthetic reasons, emphasiz-
awarded two stars since 1967, is the oldest two-star French
restaurant, and Johannes Randoing, a cook since 1934, was
succeeded by his son-in-law, Gilles Etfocle, in 1988. Eteocle
declared in an interview with the author,
We are a family business. My father-in law cooked a
very rich cuisine. We used up to
200
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